How Insects Attract a Mate

How Insects Attract a Mate If youve spent any time watching insects, youve probably stumbled on a pair of lady beetles or flies joined together in the throes of love. When youre a lone bug in a big world, finding a partner of the same species and the opposite sex is not always that simple. So how do insects find a mate? Love at First Sight- Visual Signals Some insects begin their search for a sexual partner by looking for or giving visual cues or signals. Butterflies, flies, odonates, and luminous beetles use visual signals most often. In some butterfly species, males spend much of the afternoon patrolling for receptive females. Anything that looks like a female may be inspected, especially if the object is a desired color and floats like a butterfly, to borrow a phrase from Muhammed Ali. Many species of flies perch in a place that provides a clear view of the area. The fly sits, watching for any flying object that might be a female. If one appears, he quickly takes flight and makes contact. If his quarry is indeed a female of his own species, he escorts her to an appropriate place for mating- perhaps a leaf or a twig nearby. Fireflies may be the most famous insects that flirt using visual signals. Here, the female sends the signal to lure a male. She flashes her light in a specific code that tells passing males her species, her sex, and that she is interested in mating. A male will reply with his own signal. Both male and female continue to flash their lights until they have found each other. Serenades of Love- Auditory Signals If youve heard the chirp of a cricket or the song of a cicada, youve listened to insects calling for a mate. Most insects that make sounds do so for the purpose of mating, and males tend to be the crooners in species that use auditory signals. Insects that sing for a partner include Orthopterans, Hemipterans, and Coleopterans. The best-known singing insects must be the male periodical cicadas. Hundreds or even thousands of male cicadas congregate in an area after emerging and produce an ear-splitting chorus of song. The cicada chorus usually includes three different species, singing together. Remarkably, the females respond to the song and are able to find mates of the same species from within the chaotic choir. Male crickets rub their forewings together to produce a raspy and loud song. Once he lures a female close to him, his song changes to a softer courtship call. Mole crickets, which are ground dwellers, actually construct special entrance tunnels shaped like megaphones, from which they amplify their calls. Some insects simply tap on a hard surface to produce their love calls. The death-watch beetle, for example, bangs his noggin against the roof of his tunnel to attract a mate. These beetles feed on old wood, and the sound of his head tapping resonates through the wood. Love Is in the Air- Chemical Cues French naturalist Jean-Henri Fabre discovered the power of the insect sex pheromones quite by accident in the 1870s. Male peacock moths came flitting in the open windows of his laboratory, landing on the mesh cage of a female. He tried to fool the males by moving her cage to different locations, but the males always found their way back to her. As you might suspect from their plumose antennae, male moths search for suitable female mates by sensing sex pheromones in the air. The female cecropia moth emits a scent so powerful it attracts males from miles around. A male bumble bee uses pheromones to lure a female to a perch, where he can mate with her. The male flies along, marking plants with his perfume. Once he sets his traps, he patrols his territory waiting for a female to land on one of his perches. Unmated Japanese beetle females release a strong sex attractant, which quickly draws the attention of many males. Sometimes, so many male suitors appear at one time that they form a crowded cluster referred to as a beetle ball.

Locating Historical U.S. Deeds Online

Locating Historical U.S. Deeds Online The Bureau of Land Managements General Land Office records are a great online resource for U.S. genealogists researching homestead records, bounty land grants, and other records for ancestors who purchased or received land in the thirty federal or public land states. In the eastern United States, many state archives have made available at least a portion of original grants and patents online. These online land records are all wonderful resources, however they generally only provide information on first owners or purchasers of the land. The bulk of American land records are found in the form of deeds, or private land/property transfers between individuals and corporations (non-governments). The vast majority of deeds in the United States are recorded and maintained by the county, parish (Louisiana), or district (Alaska). In the New England states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Vermont, deeds are recorded at the town level. Due primarily to increased interest by title searchers for online access, as well as to help cut access/personnel costs in the future, many U.S. counties, especially in the eastern part of the country, have started putting their historical deed records online. The best place to begin your search for online historical deed records is the website of the Register of Deeds, or Clerk of Court, or whoever is in charge of recording deeds and other real estate records for your county/locality of interest. Salem, Massachusetts historic deed books 1-20 (1641-1709), for example, are available online from the Essex County Registry of Deeds. Thirty Pennsylvania counties have deeds available online (several going back to the time of county formation) through a system called Landex (fee for access). There are also other online sources for historical deed records, such as state archives and local historical societies. The Maryland State Archives is especially notable for its cooperative project to provide access to deeds and other land record instruments from across the state. Check out MDLandRec.net with searchable indexes and viewable volumes from Maryland counties dating back to the 1600s. The Georgia Virtual Vault, hosted by the Georgia State Archives, includes Chatham County, Georgia Deed Books 1785-1806. How to Find Historical Deeds Online Locate and browse the website of the local office in charge of recording property deeds. This might be the Register of Deeds, Recorder, Auditor, or County Clerk, depending on the particular locality. You can often locate these offices through a Google search ([county name] state deeds, or by going directly to the county government site and then drilling down to the appropriate department. If the county uses a third-party service to provide online access to historical deeds, they will generally include access information on the home page of the Register of Deeds. Explore FamilySearch. Search the user-supported FamilySearch Research Wiki for your locality of interest, preferably the government level at which deeds are recorded, to learn what deeds might be available and whether they may be available either online or on microfilm from FamilySearch. The FamilySearch Research Wiki often includes links to external resources with online records as well, and may include details on any poten tial loss of deed records due to fire, flood, etc. If FamilySearch has deed or other land records for your locality online, you can find this by browsing FamilySearch Historical Records. The Family History Library Catalog (browse this by location as well) includes information on any microfilmed deed records, and may link to the record set online at FamilySearch, if it has also been digitized. Investigate the holdings of state archives, local historical society and other historical repositories. In some areas, the state archives or other historical records repository hold either the originals or copies of older deed records, and some have placed these online. U.S. State Archives Online includes links to each U.S. State Archives website, along with information on digitized online records. Or try a Google search such as locality name historical deeds. Look for state-level finding aids. A Google search such as digital deeds [state name] or historical deeds [state name] may turn up helpful finding aids such as this collection on North Carolina Digital Records, which brings together information and links for each North Carolina county deeds office, including dates and coverage for available online digital deed records. Tips for Researching Historical Deeds Online Once you locate a deeds collection of interest, explore it thoroughly to be sure the actual records available match the stated description. County record offices are putting digitized deeds online so fast that the available online documents sometimes exceed the text description. For example, the online Document Retrieval System for Martin County, North Carolina, states that it includes Old Deed Books U (08/26/1866) thru XXXXX, however, if you manually enter the book and page numbers from the older books in the search box, you will find that the digitized deed books available online actually go back to 1774, the date of county formation. Understand what you are looking at before you give up. Researchers new to Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, research might move on after entering their ancestors name in the search box for Historical Deeds 1792–1857 and receiving no results. What they might not realize, however, is that this database, despite its misleading name, is a collection of documents recorded in deed books that described people who were involved in the slave trade in the early days of Allegheny County, and does not include all deeds recorded between 1792 and 1857. Take advantage of current property records, tax maps and plat maps. Edgecombe County, North Carolina, has their historical deed indexes online, but the actual deed books are available online only back to September 1973. However, in some cases the deeds of current property owners include information on previous owners going back several generations, including deed book and page references. This type of online research can be especially helpful when platting historical deeds or conducting other types of historical neighborhood reconstruction. The Edgecombe County GIS Maps database, for example, lets you select parcel locations on a map and view information on the neighbors, along with digital copies of the most recent deed record for that parcel.

War is Kind - Stephen Crane Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

War is Kind - Stephen Crane - Essay Example War is Kind - Stephen Crane Corroborating this, the poet writes: â€Å"Great is the battle-god, great, and his kingdom-- A field where a thousand corpses lie†. This is the unending story of wars. The tone of the poem is sarcastic but it is not sarcasm alone but mixed with helplessness of the situation created by war. Apart from the material destruction caused by war which can be replenished, what can never be recouped are the loss of precious lives and the soldier leaves the memories of what has been and what never more will be for his immediate family members, acquaintances and the society at large. As such when the poet mentions that â€Å"war is kind† one must understand the hidden meaning of cruel kindness ingrained in the process of war. One death in the family is like the introduction of the muffled drum in the melodious symphony of an orchestra. The poet reveals this situation by introducing an element of sarcasm specifically in the lines fourteen through sixteen: â€Å"Raged at his breast, gulped and died, Do not weep. War is kind†. When two unrelated words or having contradictory connotations are employed together in structure, but they give a dissimilar meaning, it is a case of oxymoron. Some of the examples in this poem are: â€Å"virtue of slaughter†, â€Å"excellence of killing†, â€Å"splendid shroud†, â€Å"drill and die† and â€Å"blazing flag†. In this poem the poet has made the judicious use of oxymoron and the contrast is effective and likeable and the words the poet has placed together generate vivid meanings.

Doctrine of Promissory Estoppel Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Doctrine of Promissory Estoppel - Essay Example This research tells that Amelia offered her nephew, Dan, two thousand pounds if he worked hard and got a second class degree, and her sister, Betti, five hundred pounds for errands. She also offered a two hundred fifty pound reduction of a loan she had given to Betti's husband, Giles. Giles pays the seven hundred and fifty pounds. Dan does very little work but does get a first-class degree. Amelia now wishes to know her obligations to Betti underneath this contract. The legal questions are 1. Does Dan's meeting of the second-class degree standard mean that that part of the contract is fulfilled? 2. Did the term â€Å"second-class degree† mean â€Å"at least a second-class degree† or â€Å"a second-class degree exclusively?† 3. Are the contract elements severable; that is, is Dan's possible fulfillment of the contract separate from Giles' clear fulfillment of his duties? 4. Does it make any difference that Giles, rather than Betti, paid the seven hundred and fifty pounds? 5. Can â€Å"work hard† be meaningfully quantified? Contract Interpretation The issues of the contract should be considered separately. They are 1. The offering of money to Dan for working hard and achieving a second-class degree. 2. The offering of money to Amelia for errands in the past. (However, it seems that the errands are moot: Whether Betti actually had done errands for Amelia or not, they are accepted by the contract as a matter of fact). 3. The offering of a two-hundred-fifty pound discount on a prior one thousand loan by Amelia to Giles. There are many elements to contracts even before considering the issues of estoppel and promissory consideration: Acceptance, offer, consideration, the contract being oral or written, the severability of various elements, etc. Consideration is a part of this contract, however: Both parties are offering something of value1. The family unit as a whole (Giles, Dan, and Betti) are clearly part of this contract, with Amelia bei ng the other party. For this reason, it is moot if Giles or Betti pays the seven hundred fifty pounds unless the contract specifically states otherwise. (This will, in turn, be dependent on whether the contract is verbal or written). Acceptance of the contract is an issue. Giles owed a thousand pounds. The only concrete sign on the part of Betti's family unit is the seven hundred fifty pounds Giles paid. Amelia can make a reasonable argument that she was accepting partial payment and that this was not a sign of acceptance. Similarly, Amelia paying Betti five hundred pounds could be considered as payment for a prior act, not a fulfillment of the contract. The only sign of acceptance of the contract that would not be prompted by other prior considerations between the two families would be Dan working hard and getting a second-class degree, only half of which was ever wholly completed. While Amelia did extend an offer, it is arguable that there was ever an acceptance. The acceptance is sue and the consideration issue are inextricable. Consideration â€Å"Consideration entails the parties' doing something that they were not previously bound to do outside of the agreement. In other words, promises must pay the price (consideration) that they agreed to pay the promisor in order to gain the right to enforce the promisor's obligation†. Giles was obliged to pay one thousand pounds; paying the seven hundred fifty pounds is not a consideration. Even if Betti had paid for it, she is obligated to pay the debts of her husband, as a unified family unit. But Giles did in fact pay, meaning that there had been no consideration prior.

Local Involvement :: Development, Farmers

One main issue about local involvement is how to integrate participatory principles in the present dominant top-down hierarchical extension system in developing countries. In the study about participatory extension approach in Vietnam, Minh et al. (2000) examine the potential and challenges to scale up several new participatory principles (participatory-based training methods, interactive training sessions, group-based sharing experience, practical learning, and learning-by-doing process) in the existing supply-driven extension system. They found that by the help of external support, the approach has been proved to be successful to be applied in farmer level. In order to institutionalize this approach, they recommend using a stepwise procedure, in which it must be initiated by identifying the core problems of the existing extension system and the capacities and then gradually introducing the innovations rather than giving them on the whole. Other issue about local involvement is how to integrate farmers’ innovation into wider existing formal institutional system. Tchawa et al. (2002) assess the Participatory Technology Development in Cameroon, in which they institute that such an innovation may be effectively adopted by the various social actors involved in it, even though it requires difficult learning process difficult at the beginning of the implementation. Taking the case of soil and water conservation, this participatory approach integrating indigenous practices and modern agricultural innovations using the techniques of informal and formal learning (pp. 206-211) However, one study showed that collaboration that involving farmers must be accomplished carefully because of the possibility of social bias. The study of collaborative research-extension plans conducted in Iran indicate that the joint plans, although able to promote collaboration between extension workers and researchers, and extension workers and farmers, the results of this study indicate that such a cooperation plan may be more adaptive to larger-scale farmer segments than the smaller ones. (Movahedi et al., 2007). (pp.304-309Â ¬) Other social segment that should be considered is the young farmers. Auta et al. (2010), in the study of Nigerian youth farmers, argue that the youth needs agricultural trainings as well as more access to agricultural inputs and services to enable them participate in agricultural activities continuously, particularly under scarcity of food availability. Other focal extension issue in developing countries is about partnership among agricultural actors. In the study of cost-sharing scheme, as part of relationship reform between government and farmers extension service, Ozor et al., 2007) found that both farmers and extension workers hold positive perceptions regarding this new partnership scheme; 80.

Acca F1 Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Leadership, management and supervision Chapter learning objectives Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to: * define the term leadership * define the term management * define the term supervision * explain the difference between a leader and a manager distinguish between the role of the manager and the role of a supervisor * explain the classical approach to management using theories of  Fayol and Taylor * explain the main duties of a manager according to  Fayol * outline the relevance of classical approach to modern data practices * explain the nature of the human relations school aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"  Mayo * describe the modern school of management with reference to the theories of  Mintzberg  and  Drucker * describe the three managerial roles as per work of  H Mintzberg * explain what is meant by authority * explain what is meant by the term responsibility identify the main sources of authority * explain the relationship between authority and respon sibility * explain the situational approach to leadership using  Adair's  theory * explain the contingency approach using  Fiedler's  leadership theory * explain the differences between transactional and transformational leadership referring to the  Bennis  theory * describe the phases of the change process referring to  Kotter  theory * explain the  Heifetz  leadership theory * explain the five scores on the  Blake  and  Mouton  managerial grid * outline the usefulness of the Blake and Mouton grid describe the four leadership styles as per  Ashridge.1 Introduction 1. 1 Leadership Abasic definition of a leader is ‘someone who  exercises  influence overother people'. This can be expanded into a more complex definition:'Leadership is an interpersonal influence directed toward theachievement of a goal or goals'. * Interpersonal aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" between people. * Influence aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the power to affect others. * Goal aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" something that we need/want to achieve. Leadership is a conscious activity and is concerned with settinggoals and inspiring people to provide commitment to achieve theorganisation's goals. . 2 Managers Allmanagers have in common the  overall  aim of getting things done,delegating to other people rather than doing everything themselves. Management can be defined as ‘the effective use and co-ordinationof resources such as capital, plant, materials and labour to achievedefined objectives with maximum efficiency'. A leader can be a manager, but a manager is not necessarily aleader. If a manager is able to influence people to achieve the goals ofthe organisation, without using formal authority to do so, then themanager is demonstrating leadership.Illustration 1 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Differences between managers and leaders The manager administers; the leader innovates. The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust. The manager has his eye on the bottom line; the leader has his eye on the horizon. 1. 3 Supervision The supervisor is part of the management team. * The supervisor is a person given authority for planning and controlling the work of their group, but all they can delegate to the group is the work itself. * A supervisor, therefore, is a type of manager whose main role is to ensure that specified tasks are performed correctly and efficiently by a defined group of people. In general, supervisors will also be doing operations work and giving advice to others to help solve problems. If the more senior manager is absent, the supervisor will take over the role. Illustration 2 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" The role of a supervisor Supervisors divide their time between supervisory duties and adetailed task. For example a supervisor in  purchasing  may also regularlycomplete some clerical work like raising purchase orders. Managers must ensure that supervisors understand organisationalobjectives and communicate the power and limits of the supervisor'sauthority.Supervis ion is an important part of the task and process ofmanagement. The role of the supervisor requires direct contact with and responsibility for the work of others. * The supervisor is the interface between the management and the workforce. * Front line aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" resolving problems first hand where the work is done, and often having to resolve problems quickly. * They often need to have direct knowledge of  employment  legislation. * Often have responsibility for negotiation and industrial relations within the department. * Management tasks and operational work to perform. Day-to-day detailed internal information (manager aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" medium-term internal and external information). Test your understanding 1 Briefly explain in general terms the responsibilities of a supervisor.2 Theories of management 2. 1 The classical school Both  Taylor and Fayol  shared the belief that individualsmust subordinate themselves to the needs of the organisation. In returnthe organisation was obliged to provide job security and goodremuneration. * Taylor and Fayol  believed in ‘one best way', the optimum way to: * organise the firm * do the individual job emphasis on the task to be done rather that the person doing it. * some of the main features of their approach were as follows: * belief in one controlling central authority * specialisation of tasks * fair pay and good working conditions, decided by management * clear lines of command. Illustration 3 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Theories and management Scientific thinking on motivation in the workplace included a belief that reward for effort was a key consideration. Test your understanding 2 Which of the following statements best describes the classical approach to management? A  No one best approach.B  Communication should be encouraged. C  One best approach. D  An employee is considered an input to the organisational system. Fayol  argued that management may be split into five broadsareas: forecasting and planning, organisation, command, co-ordinationand control. Expandable text – Fayol's rules of managerial conduct Fayol  applied 14 rules of managerial conduct. These are: * Division of work  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" to improve practice and familiarity and become specialised. * Authority  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the right to give orders, linked with responsibility. * Discipline  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" respect in accordance with the agreement between the firm and its employees. Unity of command  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" each subordinate answerable to only one superior. * Unity of direction  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" only a single head and plan for a set of activities. * Subordination to the general interest  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the general good prevails over individual or sectional interests.* Remuneration  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" should be fair to both the recipient and the firm. * Centralisation  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" inevitable in organisations, but the degree should be appropriate. * Scalar chain  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" graduated lines of authority should exist from the top to the bottom of the organisation. * Order  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" workers and materials should be in their prescribed place. * Equity  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" combining clemency with justice. Tenure of personnel  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" adequate time for settling into jobs should be allowed. * Initiative  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" should be encouraged within the boundaries of authority and discipline. * Esprit de corps  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" harmony and teamwork should be encouraged in the organisation. Fayol  believed that a manager obtained the best performancefrom his workforce by leadership qualities, by his knowledge of thebusiness and his workers, and by his ability to instil a sense ofmission. Test your understanding 3 Which of the following are elements of management as identified by  Fayol. AControl. BMotivation. CCommunication. DCompromise.The implications of  Taylor's  scientific management are as follows: * Workers should be set high ta rgets, but should be well rewarded for achieving them. * Working methods should be analysed ‘scientifically', including the timing of work. * Management should plan and control all the workers' efforts, leaving little discretion for individual control over working methods. While there may be areas where these principles are still relevant,most modern theorists would argue that a more progressive approach isneeded where: * It is recognised that there is not always a ‘best' way of doing a particular job. Employees can often have considerable insight into a job and can make important suggestions for improvements. * Many workers can be motivated by other methods than tight control and financial reward. These issues are discussed in more details later in this chapter. Illustration 4 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Theories of management The classical approach is still being utilised today since this isthe principle applied in most call centres: targets are set for thenumber of calls to be ta ken in a predetermined time period and reward isbased on the achievement of the target. Test your understanding 4Which one of the following statements is closest to the beliefs of the classical school? AEmphasis on social groups. BEmphasis on the task to be done rather than the person doing it. CEmphasis on the person rather than the task. DEmphasis on encouraging people to reach their full potential. 2. 2 The human relations school Research carried out by  Mayo  at the General ElectricCompany in Chicago concluded that group relationships andmanagement-worker communication were far more important in determiningemployee behaviour than were physical conditions (e. . lighting andnoise) and the working practices imposed by management. Also, wagelevels were not the dominant motivating factor for most workers. Further research established the following propositions of the human relations school.* Employee behaviour depends primarily on the social and organisational circumstances of wo rk. * Leadership style, group cohesion and job satisfaction are major determinants of the outputs of the working group. * Employees work better if they are given a wide range of tasks to complete. Standards set internally by a working group influence employee attitudes and perspectives more than standards set by management. The usefulness of the human relations approach The school explicitly recognised the role of interpersonalrelations in determining workplace behaviour, and it demonstrated thatfactors other than pay can motivate workers. However, the approachpossibly overestimates the commitment, motivation and desire toparticipate in decision making of many employees. Test your understanding 5 Which one of the following statements is closest to the beliefs of the human relations school?AEmphasis on social groups. BEmphasis on the task to be done rather than the person doing it. CEmphasis on one best approach. DEmphasis on hierarchy of management. 2. 3 Modern writers Contributions made by modern writers on management include: * Contingency approach (‘no one best approach')  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" contingency theorists do not ignore the lessons learnt from earlier theorists, but adapt them to suit particular circumstances. * Behaviouralism  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" concerned with the personal adjustment of the individual within the work organisation and the effects of group relationships and leadership styles. Systems theory  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" expresses a manger's role as being a co-ordinator of the elements of a system, of which people are only one part. Expandable text – systems theory Systems theory takes the view that an organisation is a socialsystem, consisting of individuals who co-operate together within aformal framework, drawing resources from their environment and puttingback into that environment the products they produce or the servicesthey offer: * in doing so the input is converted into the final product or service, hopefully with value being added * an organisation does not exist in a vacuum.It depends on its environment and is part of larger systems, such as society, the economic system and the industry to which it belongs. Examples of the other systems include an information system, production system and a communication system. Drucker  identified five basic operations in the work of a manager. Managers: Expandable text * Set objectives  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" determining what they should be and what the goals in each area should be. They decide what has to be done to reach these objectives and make them effective by communicating them to the people who are going to perform them. Organise  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" analysing the activities, decisions and relations needed. They classify the work, divide it into manageable activities and further divide the activities into manageable jobs. They group the units and jobs, and select people for the management of the units and for the jobs to be done. * Motivate and communicate  aâ⠀š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" making a team out of the people that are responsible for various jobs. * Establish yardsticks  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" by making measurements available, which are focused on the performance of the whole organisation and which, at the same time, focus on the work of the individual and help them to do it.Managers analyse, appraise and interpret performance. * Develop people, including themselves. Mintzberg  identified ten skills which managers need if theyare to develop greater effectiveness, and grouped them together underthree categories, interpersonal, informational and decisional. Test your understanding 6 Is the following statement in line with  Mintzberg's  approach? ‘The manager in the informational role combines being a spokesperson and disseminator with being a monitor of information. ‘ 3 Managerial authority and responsibilityAuthority refers to the relationship between the participants in an organisation. * Authority is the right to give orders and t he power to exact obedience  (Fayol). * Authority is the right to do something, or ask someone else to do it and expect it to be done. * Authority is thus another word for legitimate power. Illustration 5 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Managerial authority and responsibility When analysing the types of authority which a manager or department may have the following terms are often used: * Line authority  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the authority a manger has over a subordinate, down the vertical chain (or line) of command. Staff authority  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is the authority one manager or department may have in giving specialist advice to another manager or department, over which there is no line authority. (HR department advising the accounts manager on interviewing techniques. )* Functional authority  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is a hybrid of line and staff authority, whereby a manager setting policies and procedures for the company as a whole has the authority in certain circumstances, to direct, design or contr ol activities or procedures of another department. (A finance manager has authority to require timely budgetary control reports from other departmental/line managers. Test your understanding 7 If a manager justifies an instruction to a subordinate by saying'because I am your superior' the manager is relying on which of thefollowing bases of authority? AFunctional BStaff CLine Responsibility is the liability of a person to be called to account for his or her actions. * Responsibility expresses the obligation a person has to fulfil a task, which he or she has been given. A person is said to be responsible for a piece of work when he or she is required to ensure that the work is done. * Responsibility is the obligation to use delegated powers. The important point is that managers and supervisors are ultimately responsible for the actions of their subordinates; the term ‘accountable' is often used. * It is accountability for the performance of specified duties or the satisfactory achievement of defined company objectives. * Because responsibility is an obligation owed, it cannot be delegated. * No superior can escape responsibility for the activities of subordinates, for it is the supervisor who delegates authority and assigns the duties. Test your understanding 8 Which of the following statements could be a definition of responsibility?ALiability to be called to account. BAccountability for actions. CAn obligation owed. John French and Bertram Raven  identified five sources or bases of power. * Reward  power aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is based on one person having the ability to reward another person for carrying out orders or meeting other requirements. * Coercive  power aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is based on one person's ability to punish another for not meeting requirements, is the negative side of reward power. * Expert  power aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is based on the perception or belief that a person has some relevant expertise or special knowledge that others do not. Refere nt  power aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is based on one person's desire to identify with or imitate another. * Legitimate  power aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the power derived from being in a position of authority within the organisational structure aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" according to the position they hold within the organisation. Illustration 6 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Managerial authority and responsibility If a manager justifies an instruction to a subordinate by saying'because I am a qualified accountant' the manager is relying on which ofthe following bases of power? AReferent BReward CLegitimate DExpert Solution D Test your understanding 9If a manager justifies an instruction to a subordinate by saying'because I am your superior' the manager is relying on which of thefollowing bases of authority? AReferent BReward CLegitimate DExpert In every position authority and responsibility should correspond (principle of correspondence): * Having responsibility without authority  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" supervisor may be held res ponsible for time keeping but does not have the authority to discipline subordinate for poor time-keeping. The supervisor is powerless to achieve the levels upon which his or her performance is being judged.This supervisor is likely to become frustrated, stressed and demotivated. Performance is likely to suffer. Conflict will occur if the supervisor fails the task due to lack of co-operation caused by lack of authority. * Having authority without responsibility  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" personnel department employ an individual but will have no responsibility for the employee; they are in a position of false security. Managers not held accountable for their authority may exercise their authority in an irresponsible way, which may not be to the benefit of the organisation.They may take unacceptable risks, because the consequences of decisions will not rebound on them. The control mechanisms of the organisation depend on accountability. Test your understanding 10 John has just joined a small accounts department. The financialcontroller is taken ill. John has been told that he needs to prepare themanagement accounts and requires information regarding salaries. Thepayroll department are not happy about giving John the informationrequired. What is the underlying cause of the problem? 4 Theories of leadership approaches 4. 1 The action-centred approach (Adair) Adair  suggests that any leader has to strive to achieve three major goals while at the same time maintaining a position as an effective leader. * Adair's action-centred leadership model looks at leadership in relation to the needs of the task, individual and group. Test your understanding 11 The table below includes needs that managers have to action. Suggest whether they are likely to be associated with individual, taskor group needs. 4. 2 The contingency approach (Fiedler) Contingency theory sees effective leadership as being dependenton a number of variable or contingent factors.There is no one right wayto lead that will fit all situations; rather it is necessary to lead ina manner that is appropriate to a particular situation. Fiedler's contingency theory * Fiedler  studied the relationship between style of leadership and effectiveness of the work group. Two styles of leader were identified. Psychologically distant managers (PDMs). * Maintain distance from their subordinates by formalising roles and relationships within the team. * Are withdrawn and reserved in their interpersonal relationships. * Prefer formal communication and consultation methods rather than seek informal opinion. Judge subordinates on the basis of performance and are primarily task-orientated. * Fiedler found that leaders of the most effective work groups actually tend to be PDMs. Psychologically close managers (PCMs) * Do not seek to formalise roles and relationships. * Prefer informal contacts to regular formal staff meetings. * They are more concerned to maintain good human relationships at work to ensure that t asks are carried out efficiently. * Fiedler  concluded that a structured (or psychologically distant) style works best when the situation is either very favourable or very unfavourable to the leader. On the other hand, a supportive (or psychologically close) style works best when the situation is moderately favourable to the leader. * He further suggested that group performance would be contingent upon the appropriate matching of leadership styles and the degree of favourableness of the group situation for the leader. Fiedler  went on to develop his contingency theory in ‘Atheory of leadership effectiveness', in which he argued that theeffectiveness of the workgroup depended on the situation. The leadershipsituation is made up of three key variables: * The relationship between the leader and the group (trust, respect and so on). The extent to which the task is defined and structured. * The power of the leader in relation to the group. Illustration 7 aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" Theorie s of leadership approaches Fiedler  suggested that a situation is favourable to theleader when the leader is liked and trusted by the group, the tasks ofthe group are clearly defined and the power of the leader to reward andpunish the team, with organisational backing, is high. Test your understanding 12 The accounts manager holds a departmental meeting every Monday at 10. 00 am. How would  Fiedler  define this manager? 4. 3 Transformational leadership (Bennis)Some of the values used to distinguish between managers and leaders have also been identified as: * Transactional leaders aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" see the relationship with their followers in terms of a trade: they give followers the rewards they want in exchange for service, loyalty and compliance. * Transformational leaders aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" see their role as inspiring and motivating others to work at levels beyond mere compliance. Only transformational leadership is said to be able to change team/organisational cultures and crea te a new direction. Expandable text Bennis  is an influential American author on leadership andchange.He focuses on the need to inspire change rather than imposingit. He identifies five ‘avenues of change': * Dissent and conflict aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" top management impose change by means of their position of power, the result being rancour amongst those affected. * Trust and truth aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" management must gain trust, express their vision clearly, and persuade others to follow. * Cliques and cabals aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" cliques have power, money and resources; cabals have ambition, drive and energy. Unless the cliques can co-opt the cabals, revolution is inevitable. * External events aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" forces of society can impose change, e. . by new government regulation or through overseas competition. * Culture or paradigm shift aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" changing the corporate culture is the most important avenues of change. Test your understanding 13 When organisational change requires a change in structure and/orculture would the organisation require a transformational ortransactional leader? 4. 4 Managing change (Kotter) Kotter  set out the following change approaches to deal with resistance: Test your understanding 14 Training in the use of a new information system is a means of overcoming resistance to change by: AFacilitation and support.BEducation and communication. CParticipation and involvement. DNegotiation and agreement. 4. 5 Leadership to mobilise (Heifetz) Heifetz  argues that the role of the leader is to help people face reality and to mobilise them to make change. Heifetzsuggests that the old approach to leadership was that leaders had theanswers, the vision and then needed to persuade people to sign up forthe change. Heifetz believes that leaders provide direction but do nothave to offer definite answers and should mobilise people to tackle thetough challenges for themselves. Leaders have two choices when resolving a situation: Technical change aà ¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the application of current knowledge, skills and or tools to resolve a situation. * Adaptive change aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" is required when the problem cannot be solved with existing skills and knowledge and requires people to make a shift in their values, expectations, attitudes or habits of behaviour. This is often required to ensure organisational survival. Expandable text Heifetz  suggests four principles for bringing about adaptive change: * Recognition that the change requires an adaptive approach and understanding the values that need to be shifted and the issues that need to be resolved to make the shift possible. Adaptive change causes unhappiness in the people being led; adaptive change requires the right level of stress to be applied: too little stress and people do not appreciate the need for change: too much stress and there will be no ‘buy-in'. * Keep focused on the real issue of realising the change; do not spend too much time on stress-reducing distrac tions. * Ensure the people who need to make the change take responsibility and face the reality of doing the work of change for themselves. Leaders provide the direction, posing well-structured questions, rather than offering definite answers. Leadership styles 5. 1 Blake and Mouton Robert Blake and Jane Mouton  carried out research intomanagerial behaviour and observed two basic dimensions of leadership:concern for production (or task performance) and concern for people. Based on the results of staff questionnaires, managers can then be plotted on  Blake and Mouton's grid. 1. 1 Management impoverished  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this manager only makesminimum effort in either area and will make the smallest possible effortrequired to get the job done. 1. ‘Country Club' management  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this manager is thoughtfuland attentive to the needs of the people, which leads to a comfortablefriendly organisation atmosphere but very little work is actuallyachieved. 9. 1 Task mana gement  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this manager is only concerned with production and arranges work in such a way that people interference is minimised. 5. 5 ‘Middle of the road management'  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this manager is able to balance the task in hand and motivate the people to achieve these tasks. 9. 9 Team management  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" this manager integrates the two areas to foster working together and high production to produce true team leadership.Blake and Mouton's  grid can be used to assess the currentbehavioural style of a manager and then plan appropriate training anddevelopment to enable them to move towards 9. 9. Test your understanding 15 Using the scores shown on the above grid, make suggestions as tohow this particular manager could improve his/her managerial style. 5. 2 Ashridge The research unit at  Ashridge Management  College distinguished four different management styles. Tells (autocratic)  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the manager makes all the decisions and issue s instructions which must be obeyed without question. Strengths: * Quick decisions can be made when required. The most efficient type of leadership for highly-programmed work. Weaknesses: * Communications are one-way, neglecting feedback and potential for upward communication or team member input. * Does not encourage initiative or commitment from subordinates, merely compliance. Sells (persuasive)  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the manager still makes all thedecisions, but believes that team members must be motivated to acceptthem in order to carry them out properly. Strengths: * Team members understand the reason for decisions. * Team members may be more committed. * Team members may be able to function slightly better in the absence of instruction.Weaknesses: * Communications are still largely one-way. * Team members are not necessarily motivated to accept the decision. * It still doesn't encourage initiative or commitment. Consults (participative)  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the manager confers with the team and takes their views into account, although still retains the final say. Strengths: * Involves team members in decisions, encouraging motivation through greater interest and involvement. * Consensus may be reached, enhancing the acceptability of the decision to team members. * The quality of the decision may benefit from the input of those who do the work. * Encourages upward communication.Weaknesses: * May take longer to reach decisions (especially if consensus is sought). * Team member input may not enhance the quality of the decision. * Consultation can be a faA §ade for a basic ‘sells' style. Joins (democratic)  aâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the leader and the team members make the decision together on the basis of consensus. Strengths: * Can provide high motivation and commitment from team members. * Empowers a team member to take the initiative (e g. in responding flexibly to customer demands and problems). * Shares other advantages of the ‘consults' style (especi ally where team members can add value). Weaknesses: May undermine the authority of the manager. * May further lengthen the decision-making process. * May reduce the quality of the decision because of the politics of decision making. Test your understanding 16 For each of the statements made by managers listed below, choose an Ashridge leadership style that best describes the statement. Chapter summary Test your understanding answers Test your understanding 1 * Planning the work of the department. * Ensuring by adequate supervision that the work is completed as far as possible according to plan. * Maintaining discipline in the department. * Undertaking the task when required. Having knowledge and ability in all aspects of health, safety and employment legislation that applies to his or her subordinates. Test your understanding 2 C Test your understanding 3 A only Test your understanding 4 B Test your understanding 5 A Test your understanding 6 Yes Test your understanding 7 C Test you r understanding 8 A, B and C Test your understanding 9 C Test your understanding 10 John has been given the responsibility for completing a task but without the authority. Test your understanding 11 Test your understanding 12 Psychologically distant manager. Test your understanding 13Transformational. Test your understanding 14 A Test your understanding 15 The manager illustrated in the above grid is showing good concernfor production (although this can be strengthened further) but is weakin terms of concern for employees. Further investigation would then becarried out to determine why this is the case and in what ways such alack of concern is exhibited. Then rectifying action can be taken. For example: * Attend a training course on people skills and motivation. * Involve staff in more decisions. * Treat staff as valuable assets; adopt an open door policy. Test your understanding 16

Into the Wild Chris McCandless is a Coward - 1193 Words

The distinction between whether an individual is to be considered a hero or a coward lies in their death. The difference is the impact, and the impact differs for a hero than a coward. When a hero dies, the magnitude of the impact on society is greater as society reflects on all the positive achievements that have been accomplished. Their death is more of a rebirth of a soul, the rebirth of hope. However, a coward dies many times before their actual death. The mistakes and tragic falls are considered to be these multiple deaths. â€Å"The valiant never taste of death but once†, a quote said by William Shakespeare. Throughout the novel of Into the Wild by Jon Krakeur, Chris McCandless is thought to be a courageous hero by many.†¦show more content†¦Chris was a great student, completing Emory College with straight As and then without any notice, was gone. He donated his savings and â€Å"burned all his cash† (20) and he gave his â€Å"money to OXFAM to fight hun ger†(31). He could have used his skills and charm to help every charity in the country. he could have ben a lawyer for the poor and oppressed. His problem was that â€Å" you attempted to talk him out of something, he wouldn’t argue. He just nodded his head politely and did what he wanted† (119). His parents were under the impression that he was on his way to law school to help society but â€Å"they misread him† (20). He disappeared from it all instead of facing the challenges that everyone must face about their family, society and future. What seems most hurtful and regrettable is Chris’ resentment towards the parents who did so much for him. Chris spent two years with no contact, and now they will never be able to see him again. His childishness clouded his judgment, and caused him to rewrite history, convincing him that his parents were his enemy when instead, they were supportive and proud of Chris. It was shameful â€Å"that a kid with so mu ch compassion could his parents so much pain†(104). His travels seemed to be an escape from his family, and a reactionary revenge against his comfortable life. Something strange was happening to him, he became resentful of the life offeredShow MoreRelatedThe Character of Chris McCandless in Jon Krakauer’s, Into the Wild1059 Words   |  5 PagesThe appeal of being a coward is the opposite of being an adventurous, free-spirited young man; both behaviors contradict each other. Nevertheless, an individual with both characteristics can be identified in Jon Krakauer’s, Into the Wild. Christopher McCandless has a sublime life, until he decides to abandon his standard of living and isolate himself in order to endure a risky life-taking adventure. One may consider McCandless as an adventurer for challenging himself and living off the land, butRead MoreEssay On Chris Mccandless1371 Words   |  6 PagesJake Schuman Prof. Tuck ENGL M01A MW 5 P.M 4 December 2017 Forever in the Wild Chris McCandless was a hero to many people throughout his life and he was often considered a hero to most. But, a lot of people criticized his errors along the journey. When Chris died, his impact on society was mostly positive, and the people who he met remembered his accomplishments that he has made in their life. His passing let people remember him for what he has done to help others along the way. HisRead MoreDialectical Journal- The Things They Carried and Into the Wild4405 Words   |  18 Pagesin the chapter â€Å"On the Rainy River† when O’Brien ran away to Canada after he had been drafted that he felt this way. The only reason that he returned home only to go to war was because he was worried about people in his hometown thinking he was a coward. Also, later in the book, O’Brien ends up killing a man, which is mentioned in the quote. Not only did O’Brien kill the man on impulse but mostly because the other men pressured him too. He proves in this quote that the main fears during war were